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What Kingdom Are Algae In

Written By Sunday, October 23, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms

Algae

An breezy term for a diverse grouping of photosynthetic eukaryotes

Temporal range:

Mesoproterozoic–present [1] [two]

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'due north

A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters
A diversity of algae growing on the body of water bed in shallow waters
A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae
A multifariousness of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Groups included
  • Archaeplastida
    • Viridiplantae/green algae
      • Mesostigmatophyceae
      • Chlorokybophyceae
      • Chlorophyta
      • Charophyta
    • Rhodophyta (cherry algae)
    • Glaucophyta
  • Chlorarachniophytes
  • Euglenids
  • Heterokonts
    • Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)
    • Axodines
    • Bolidomonas
    • Eustigmatophyceae
    • Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
    • Chrysophyceae (golden algae)
    • Raphidophyceae
    • Synurophyceae
    • Xanthophyceae (yellow-greenish algae)
  • Cryptophyta
  • Dinoflagellata
  • Haptophyta
Typically excluded:
  • Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brownish alga which may abound up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic (they generate nutrient internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such every bit stomata, xylem and phloem that are institute in country plants. The largest and nearly circuitous marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a partitioning of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts.

No definition of algae is mostly accepted. One definition is that algae "have chlorophyll a equally their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile roofing of cells effectually their reproductive cells".[3] Also, the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most regime exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae.[4] [v]

Algae constitute a polyphyletic group[4] since they practise not include a common antecedent, and although their plastids seem to accept a single origin, from blue-green alga,[six] they were caused in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic reddish alga.[seven] Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from uncomplicated asexual cell partition to complex forms of sexual reproduction.[8]

Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-similar structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids of nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs institute in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of greenish algae, many gilded algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic appliance.[ix] [x] [eleven] Some other heterotrophic organisms, such every bit the apicomplexans, are as well derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are non traditionally considered equally algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from blue-green alga that produce oxygen every bit a by-production of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as royal and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya bowl have been dated back to 1.six to one.7 billion years agone.[12]

Because of the wide range of types of algae, they accept increasing unlike industrial and traditional applications in human being society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and take strong traditions in Eastern asia food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution command, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in social club to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.[xiii]

Etymology and study [edit]

The singular alga is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English.[14] The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre , 'be cold',[15] no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more probable source is alliga , 'binding, entwining'.[16]

The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was φῦκος ( phŷkos ), which could hateful either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a crimson dye derived from it. The Latinization, fūcus , meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a potent candidate has long been some discussion related to the Biblical פוך ( pūk ), 'paint' (if non that word itself), a cosmetic heart-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, greenish, or blue.[17]

Accordingly, the mod report of marine and freshwater algae is chosen either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name fucus appears in a number of taxa.

Classifications [edit]

The commission on the International Code of Botanical Classification has recommended certain suffixes for use in the nomenclature of algae. These are -phyta for segmentation, -phyceae for class, -phycideae for subclass, -ales for order, -inales for suborder, -aceae for family, -oidease for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species.

Algal characteristics basic to primary classification [edit]

The master classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) paint constitution of the jail cell, (b) chemic nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile prison cell, (d) chemic composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absenteeism of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure.

History of classification of algae [edit]

Although Carolus Linnaeus (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia, he did not elaborate further on the nomenclature of algae.

Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, William Henry Harvey (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. J. Thousand. Agardh (1849–1898) divided algae into six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae forth with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a partition created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, Adolf Engler and Karl A. E. Prantl (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of stance that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed past Engler and Prantl is summarised every bit follows:[eighteen]

  1. Schizophyta
  2. Phytosarcodina
  3. Flagellata
  4. Dinoflagellata
  5. Bacillariophyta
  6. Conjugatae
  7. Chlorophyceae
  8. Charophyta
  9. Phaeophyceae
  10. Rhodophyceae
  11. Eumycetes (Fungi)

The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to blue-green alga. Chloroplasts contain round DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Nonetheless, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their conquering during dissimilar endosymbiotic events. The table beneath describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the effigy in the upper correct. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.

Phylogeny based on plastid[19] non nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:

Supergroup affiliation Members Endosymbiont Summary
Primoplantae/
Archaeplastida
  • Chlorophyta
  • Rhodophyta
  • Glaucophyta
 Cyanobacteria These algae have "chief" chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of cerise algae have chlorophylls a and c (ofttimes), and phycobilins, while those of light-green algae take chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b without phycobilins. Country plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the Charophyta, and land plants are grouped together as the Viridiplantae.
Excavata and Rhizaria
  • Chlorarachniophytes
  • Euglenids
 Light-green algae

These groups have dark-green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b.[20] Their chloroplasts are surrounded by iv and iii membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae.

Chlorarachniophytes, which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, incorporate a small-scale nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae'due south nucleus.

Euglenids, which vest to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in fresh h2o and accept chloroplasts with only 3 membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.[21]

Halvaria and Hacrobia
  • Heterokonts
  • Dinoflagellates
  • Haptophyta
  • Cryptomonads
 Red algae

These groups accept chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c, and phycobilins. The shape can vary; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from whatever prokaryotes or master chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae advise a relationship there.[22]

In the first 3 of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented antecedent, although other bear witness casts doubt on whether the heterokonts, Haptophyta, and cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.[23] [24]

The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has 3 membranes, just considerable multifariousness exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred.[6] The Apicomplexa, a grouping of closely related parasites, also have plastids called apicoplasts, which are not photosynthetic, only appear to accept a common origin with dinoflagellate chloroplasts.[6]

title page of Gmelin'due south Historia Fucorum, dated 1768

Linnaeus, in Species Plantarum (1753),[25] the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which but four are currently considered among algae.[26] In Systema Naturae, Linnaeus described the genera Volvox and Corallina, and a species of Acetabularia (as Madrepora), among the animals.

In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the starting time book on marine biology to use the so new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.[27] [28]

Westward. H. Harvey (1811–1866) and Lamouroux (1813)[29] were the first to divide macroscopic algae into 4 divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the get-go use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's 4 divisions are: crimson algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.[30] [31]

At this fourth dimension, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.1000., O. F. Müller and Ehrenberg) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms). Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed every bit plants, microalgae were often considered animals because they are often motile.[29] Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes just seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.[32] [33]

Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, east.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen equally an artificial, polyphyletic group.

Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups every bit divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes).

With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, near groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, equally a legacy of the older establish life scheme, some groups that were besides treated every bit protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists).

Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium, parasites of metazoans, or Cephaleuros, parasites of plants) were originally classified every bit fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of incertae sedis,[34] while others (e.g., the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium, parasites of plants, or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates Oodinium, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.one thousand., Chlorochytrium), just subsequently were seen as endophytic algae.[35] Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups similar the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, just are not included in whatsoever grouping traditionally seen equally algae.

Relationship to land plants [edit]

The starting time state plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara virtually 500 one thousand thousand years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may take been around equally long as 475 million years ago.[36] [37]

Morphology [edit]

The kelp woods exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus

A range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The simply groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes.[38] Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes.[38] The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have singled-out nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes.[38] Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, likewise as the browns.[38]

Nearly of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, simply colonial and nonmotile forms accept adult independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than than i of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, are

  • Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells
  • Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
  • Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls
  • Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in gum
  • Filamentous: a string of connected nonmotile cells, sometimes branching
  • Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues

In 3 lines, fifty-fifty higher levels of organisation have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,[39]—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)[40]—the red algae,[41] and the greenish algae.[42] The nearly circuitous forms are found among the charophyte algae (run into Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher state plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes.

Turfs [edit]

The term algal turf is normally used only poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, rug-similar beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps, and they are usually less than xv cm alpine. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and volition generally embrace an expanse in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed:[43]

  • Algae that course aggregations that take been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are ofttimes equanimous of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, only monospecific turfs are frequently reported.[43]
  • Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and fifty-fifty within species on local scales and tin be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species.[43]
  • Turfs have been defined every bit short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might exist described as canopies (20 to thirty cm).[43]

Physiology [edit]

Many algae, particularly members of the Characeae species,[44] have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation,[ clarification needed ] salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.

Phytohormones are establish not only in higher plants, simply in algae, as well.[45]

Symbiotic algae [edit]

Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:

Lichens [edit]

Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific construction".[46] The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. In nature, they practise not occur dissever from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate.[47] Ane mycobiont associates with the aforementioned phycobiont species, rarely ii, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more than accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many dissimilar mycobionts or may alive independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.[48] The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can exist experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.[49]

Trentepohlia is an example of a mutual green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often like appearance with specialized species of algae (aerophytes) growing on exposed surfaces such every bit tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them.

Coral reefs [edit]

Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the guild Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with h2o and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they advance host-prison cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced past the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a salubrious condition.[50] The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a status which leads to the deterioration of a reef.

Sea sponges [edit]

Endosymbiontic greenish algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.[51]

Lifecycle [edit]

Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the iii main algal divisions, have lifecycles which show considerable variation and complication. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed'south cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed past fusion of the male person and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Normally, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to class a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a fundamental role in these processes.[52] Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a fundamental stage of the sexual cycle.[53] However, sexual reproduction is more than costly than asexual reproduction.[54] Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.[55]

Numbers [edit]

The Algal Collection of the U.s.a. National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive drove exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).[56] Estimates vary widely. For case, according to one standard textbook,[57] in the British Isles the Britain Biodiversity Steering Grouping Study estimated in that location to be twenty,000 algal species in the UK. Some other checklist reports only nigh 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable gauge of the full number of species ..."

Regional and group estimates have been made, as well:

  • five,000–v,500 species of red algae worldwide
  • "some ane,300 in Australian Seas"[58]
  • 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,[59] and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.[60] Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in Listing of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines.
  • 669 marine species from California (US)[61]
  • 642 in the check-list of Great britain and Republic of ireland[62]

and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more than credibility than the British ones mentioned above. About estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.

The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.[63]

Distribution [edit]

The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century.[64] Algae spread mainly past the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be achieved past air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be establish in a diversity of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.[64] Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental weather where the spore lands.

The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running h2o and wind, equally well as by living carriers.[64] However, not all bodies of water can comport all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them.[64] Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly dissimilar habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.[65]

To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of sea or general state masses. It is, therefore, possible to place species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such equally the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and U. fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this way.

Mapping is possible for select species only: "in that location are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."[66] For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.[67] Nonetheless, scientists regard the overall data as bereft due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."[68]

Ecology [edit]

Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, nether 100 m (330 ft) deep; nevertheless, some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of 360 yard (ane,180 ft).[69] A type of algae, Ancylonema nordenskioeldii, was establish in Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increment in the rate of melting ice canvass.[seventy] Same algae was constitute in the Italian Alps, afterward pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.[71]

The various sorts of algae play meaning roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the h2o column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very loftier densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the h2o and outcompete, poison, or choke other life forms.

Algae can exist used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in diverse aquatic systems.[72] In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species limerick of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.[72] To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the surroundings and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.[72]

On the basis of their habitat, algae tin can be categorized as: aquatic (planktonic, benthic, marine, freshwater, lentic, lotic),[73] terrestrial, aerial (subaerial),[74] lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic), parasitic, calcifilic or lichenic (phycobiont).[75]

Cultural associations [edit]

In classical Chinese, the word 藻 is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars) for "literary talent". The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao, which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent".

Cultivation [edit]

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.

The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae (as well referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae). Macroalgae, usually known equally seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the surround in which they need to grow, they exercise not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, notwithstanding, with the appearance of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically algae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small-scale containers).

Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production of food ingredients such as omega-3 fatty acids or natural food colorants and dyes, food, fertilizer, bioplastics, chemic feedstock (raw material), pharmaceuticals, and algal fuel, and tin also be used every bit a means of pollution control.

Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from xiii.5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016.[76]

Seaweed farming [edit]

A seaweed farmer stands in shallow water, gathering edible seaweed that has grown on a rope

A seaweed farmer in Nusa Lembongan (Indonesia) gathers edible seaweed that has grown on a rope.

Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form, it consists of the management of naturally found batches. In its near advanced form, it consists of fully controlling the life wheel of the algae.

The top seven virtually cultivated seaweed taxa are Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii, Gracilaria spp., Saccharina japonica, Undaria pinnatifida, Pyropia spp., and Sargassum fusiforme. Eucheuma and K. alvarezii are farmed for carrageenan (a gelling amanuensis); Gracilaria is farmed for agar; while the rest are farmed for food. The largest seaweed-producing countries are Red china, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Other notable producers include South Korea, Democratic people's republic of korea, Japan, Malaysia, and Zanzibar (Tanzania).[77] Seaweed farming has frequently been developed as an alternative to improve economical weather condition and to reduce fishing force per unit area and overexploited fisheries.[78]

Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5×10

^

6 t (13,300,000 long tons; 14,900,000 short tons) in 1995 to just over thirty×10

^

6 t (30,000,000 long tons; 33,000,000 brusque tons) in 2016.[79] As of 2014, seaweed was 27% of all marine aquaculture.[80] Seaweed farming is a carbon negative crop, with a high potential for climate change mitigation .[80] The IPCC Special Written report on the Bounding main and Cryosphere in a Irresolute Climate recommends "farther research attention" equally a mitigation tactic.[81]

Bioreactors [edit]

A close up of microalgae – Pavlova sp.

An algae bioreactor is used for cultivating micro or macro algae. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of biomass production (equally in a seaweed cultivator), wastewater treatment, COii fixation, or aquarium/pond filtration in the course of an algae scrubber. Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into 2 categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the temper while enclosed reactors, also commonly chosen photobioreactors, are isolated to varying extents from the temper. Specifically, algae bioreactors tin be used to produce fuels such every bit biodiesel and bioethanol, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as NOx and CO2 in flue gases of ability plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the photosynthetic reaction, which is performed by the chlorophyll-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to brand it accessible for the algae. The bioreactor has to exist made out of transparent textile.

Uses [edit]

Agar [edit]

Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.[82] It is a expert medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, equally most microorganisms cannot digest agar.

Alginates [edit]

Alginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brownish algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid besides has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for prison cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is too a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which information technology becomes a commitment vehicle for flavours.

Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed.[83] [84]

Energy source [edit]

To exist competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the price level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels concur bang-up promise,[85] [86] directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit of measurement area in a year than any other course of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.[87]

Fertilizer [edit]

For centuries, seaweed has been used equally a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales:[88]

This kind of ore they frequently gather and lay on great heapes, where information technology heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome scent; when being so rotten they cast on the state, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... Afterwards spring-tydes or bang-up rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on equus caballus backes, and carie the same 3, iv, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the footing for corn and grass.

Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed.[89] Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used equally a soil conditioner.

Diet [edit]

Dulse, a type of edible seaweed

Naturally growing seaweeds are an of import source of food, peculiarly in Asia, leading some to label them as superfoods.[ninety] They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, Bsix, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium.[91] In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed every bit nutritional supplements, such as spirulina,[92] Chlorella and the vitamin-C supplement from Dunaliella, high in beta-carotene.

Algae are national foods of many nations: Prc consumes more than than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as nori and aonori;[93] Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo.[94] Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales, where it is known every bit bara lawr ; in Korea, gim . It is also used along the west declension of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Māori of New Zealand. Body of water lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland, Republic of ireland, Greenland, and Iceland. Algae is being considered a potential solution for globe hunger problem.[95] [96] [97]

Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine:

  • Chlorella: This grade of alga is constitute in freshwater and contains photosynthetic pigments in its chloroplast. It is high in iron, zinc, magnesium, vitamin B2 and Omega-3 Fat acids.

Furthermore, information technology contains all ix of the essential amino acids the body does not produce on its ain[98]

  • Spirulina: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a prokaryote, incorrectly referred to as a "blue-greenish alga"), contains ten% more protein than Chlorella equally well every bit more than thiamine and copper.[99]

The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For case, Parietochloris incisa is very high in arachidonic acid, where information technology reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.[100] Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism comprise the long-concatenation, essential omega-iii fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-iii fat acids, only the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the nutrient chain.[101] Algae take emerged in contempo years equally a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which merely contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).

Pollution command [edit]

  • Sewage can exist treated with algae,[102] reducing the employ of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise exist needed.
  • Algae tin can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used every bit fertilizer.
  • Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the h2o in a device called an algae scrubber, besides known as an algae turf scrubber.[103] [104] [105] [106]

Agronomical Enquiry Service scientists constitute that 60–xc% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies tin can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They constitute that algae can readily exist used to reduce the food runoff from agronomical fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential equally an organic fertilizer. They institute that cucumber and corn seedlings grew merely too using ATS organic fertilizer every bit they did with commercial fertilizers.[107] Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.

Polymers [edit]

Various polymers tin can exist created from algae, which can exist especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene.[108] Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops[109] and in surf boards.[110]

Bioremediation [edit]

The alga Stichococcus bacillaris has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; biodegrading the synthetic substance.[111]

Pigments [edit]

The natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced past algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents.[112] The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific paint concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, specially high-performance liquid chromatography, tin therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in body of water h2o samples.[113] [114]

Stabilizing substances [edit]

Carrageenan, from the cherry-red alga Chondrus crispus, is used equally a stabilizer in milk products.

Additional images [edit]

  • Algae bladder

    Algae bladder

See likewise [edit]

  • AlgaeBase
  • AlgaePARC
  • Eutrophication
  • Iron fertilization
  • Marimo algae
  • Microbiofuels
  • Microphyte
  • Photobioreactor
  • Phycotechnology
  • Plant
  • Toxoid – anatoxin

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Bibliography [edit]

General [edit]

  • Chapman, V.J. (1950). Seaweeds and their Uses. London: Methuen. ISBN978-0-412-15740-0.
  • Fritsch, F. E. (1945) [1935]. The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Vol. I & II. Cambridge University Press.
  • van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. 1000. (1995). Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press.
  • Kassinger, Ruth (2020). Slime: How Algae Created Us, Plague Us, and But Might Save Us. Mariner.
  • Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-32115-0.
  • Mumford, T. F.; Miura, A. (1988). "Porphyra as nutrient: cultivation and economic". In Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J. R. (eds.). Algae and Human Diplomacy. Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 87–117. ISBN978-0-521-32115-0. .
  • Round, F. E. (1981). The Ecology of Algae. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-22583-0.
  • Smith, Thou. M. (1938). Cryptogamic Botany. Vol. I. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Ask, E.I (1990). Cottonii and Spinosum Cultivation Handbook. FMC BioPolymer Corporation.Philippines.

Regional [edit]

Britain and Ireland [edit]

  • Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie Thousand.; Chamberlain, Yvonne K.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R. 50.; Hommersand, Max H.; Irvine, Linda M.; Maggs, Christine A. (1977–2003). Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History). London / Andover: British Museum of Natural History, HMSO / Intercept. ISBN978-0-565-00781-two.
  • Cullinane, John P. (1973). Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland. Cork: Cork Academy Press.
  • Hardy, F. G.; Aspinall, R. J. (1988). An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Heart. ISBN978-0-9509680-5-6.
  • Hardy, F. K.; Guiry, Michael D.; Arnold, Henry R. (2006). A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. ISBN978-3-906166-35-3.
  • John, D. M.; Whitton, B. A.; Brook, J. A. (2002). The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-77051-4.
  • Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W. (1931). Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of mann. Liverpool Marine Biological science Committee Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. Vol. XXX. Liverpool: University Press.
  • Morton, Osborne (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Belfast: Ulster Museum. ISBN978-0-900761-28-7.
  • Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). "The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Republic of ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Lodge. 27: three–164.

Australia [edit]

  • Huisman, J. 1000. (2000). Marine Plants of Commonwealth of australia. University of Western Australia Printing. ISBN978-1-876268-33-half-dozen.

New Zealand [edit]

  • Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M.; Dromgoole, F. I. (1970) [1900, 1956, 1961, 1969]. The Marine algae of New Zealand. London / Lehre, Frg: Linnaean Order of London / Cramer.

Europe [edit]

  • Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-François; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992). Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée (in French). Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestlé. ISBN978-ii-603-00848-5.
  • Gayral, Paulette (1966). Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines (in French). Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.
  • Guiry, Michael. D.; Blunden, G. (1991). Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-471-92947-5.
  • Míguez Rodríguez, Luís (1998). Algas mariñas de Galicia: Bioloxía, gastronomía, industria (in Galician). Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia. ISBN978-84-8302-263-iv.
  • Otero, J. (2002). Guía das macroalgas de Galicia (in Galician). A Coruña: Baía Edicións. ISBN978-84-89803-22-0.
  • Bárbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993). Guía de las algas del litoral gallego (in Spanish). A Coruña: Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias.

Chill [edit]

  • Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). The algae of the Chill Ocean: A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the full general characters and the development of the flora. Vol. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp. 1–350.

Greenland [edit]

  • Lund, Søren Jensen (1959). The Marine Algae of East Greenland. Kövenhavn: C.A. Reitzel. 9584734.

Faroe Islands [edit]

  • Børgesen, Frederik (1970) [1903]. "Marine Algae". In Warming, Eugene (ed.). Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations, Part 2. Copenhagen: Det nordiske Forlag. pp. 339–532. .

Canary Islands [edit]

  • Børgesen, Frederik (1936) [1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930]. Marine Algae from the Canary Islands. Copenhagen: Bianco Lunos.

Morocco [edit]

  • Gayral, Paulette (1958). Algues de la côte atlantique marocaine (in French). Casablanca: Rabat [Société des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc].

South Africa [edit]

  • Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J. J.; Anderson, R. J. (1997). Seaweeds of the South African W Coast. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. ISBN978-0-7992-1793-3.

N America [edit]

  • Abbott, I. A.; Hollenberg, G. J. (1976). Marine Algae of California. California: Stanford University Press. ISBN978-0-8047-0867-8.
  • Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). An annotated central to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States. Washington DC: U.s.a. Section of the Interior, Geological Survey. Retrieved 19 Dec 2008.
  • Taylor, William Randolph (1969) [1937, 1957, 1962]. Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor: Academy of Michigan Press. ISBN978-0-472-04904-2.
  • Wehr, J. D.; Sheath, R. G. (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification. Bookish Press. ISBN978-0-12-741550-5.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to Algae.

  • Guiry, Michael; Guiry, Wendy. "AlgaeBase". – a database of all algal names including images, classification, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts
  • "Algae – Jail cell Centered Database". CCDb.UCSD.edu. San Diego: Academy of California.
  • "Algae Research". National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • Anderson, Don; Keafer, Bruce; Kleindinst, Judy; Shaughnessy, Katie; Joyce, Katherine; Fino, Danielle; Shepherd, Adam (2007). "Harmful Algae". US National Role for Harmful Algal Blooms. Archived from the original on 5 Dec 2008. Retrieved xix December 2008.
  • "Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)". Department of Environment / Climate change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust. Archived from the original on thirty December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • "Freshwater Algae Enquiry". Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research. 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  • "Monterey Bay Flora". Monterey Bay Aquarium Enquiry Institute (MBARI). 1996–2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved xx Dec 2008.
  • Silva, Paul (1997–2004). "Index Nominum Algarum (INA)". Berkeley: University Herbarium, University of California. Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • "Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts". TolWeb.org.
  • "Enquiry on microalgae". Algae.WUR.nl. Wageningen UR. 2009. Archived from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved eighteen May 2009.
  • "Algae glossary". Australian Biological Resources Report. Archived from the original on 1 Nov 2012 – via Environment.gov.au.
  • "Well-nigh Algae". NMH.ac.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. Natural History Museum, Great britain.
  • EnAlgae Archived 4 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine

What Kingdom Are Algae In,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae

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